Back to Basics: Contributions of Plant Science to Fundamental Scientific Concepts

Plant biology has always been at the center of biological research. When most people think about biology, they often think of human physiology—doctors with stethoscopes, the structure of the heart, or the brain. I know, at least when I was in school, the image of biology often revolved around humans or animals, rather than plants. However, over the years, as I delved deeper into biological sciences, I realized that plant biology, often overlooked, has contributed enormously to the advancement of biological research. Take, for example, the discovery of the “cell.” The concept of the cell was born not from human or animal biology, but from the study of cork tissue. In 1665, Robert Hooke, while examining a thin slice of cork, made a groundbreaking observation. He described it as having tiny, honeycomb-like pores, which he called “cells”—a term borrowed not only from the structure of a beehive but also from the Latin word “cellera,” meaning a small room, like those monks occupied in a monastery. This momentous discovery marked the beginning of a journey into the microscopic world of cellular structures, laying the foundation for cell biology (Robert Hooke, 1865,  Brian J. Ford, 2001). However, the quest to understand what was inside those cells didn’t stop there. In 1831, while investigating the fertilization mechanisms of plants in the Orchidaceae and Asclepiadaceae families, Robert Brown observed a structure within the cells of orchids and other plants. He termed this structure the “nucleus,” which would later become recognized as the control center of the cell. Though not the first to observe the cell nucleus, Brown’s work contributed significantly to the development of cell theory and our understanding of cell function (R. Brown, 1831, Steven J. Hajdu, 2002).

By the early 1800s, scientists had observed cells in a wide variety of organisms. This led to the work of two German scientists, Theodor Schwann and Matthias Schleiden, who proposed that cells are the fundamental units of life, a principle now fundamental to modern biology. But what lies within the nucleus? We know that it contains DNA, but this wasn’t visible to early scientists due to technical limitations. However, the observation of chromosomes—thread-like structures within the nucleus—would soon illuminate the pathway to understanding genetic inheritance. In 1842, Swiss botanist Karl Wilhelm von Nägeli made the first recorded observation of chromosomes in plant cells while studying pollen formation in Tradescantia. He described these structures as “transitory cytoblasts,” which were later identified as chromosomes. This discovery marked an important milestone in cell biology and genetics, laying the groundwork for future discoveries in molecular genetics (O’Connor, C. & Miko, I. (2008).

The concept of evolution, which would later become central to biology, was also shaped by plant research. Charles Darwin, the father of evolutionary biology, famously used plants to illustrate his theory of natural selection. While Darwin is often associated with the famous finches of the Galápagos Islands, plants played a crucial role in his formulation of the theory. Through cultivated plants like wheat, barley, and cabbage, Darwin demonstrated how human selection could rapidly create new varieties, mirroring the natural selection that occurs in the wild. Darwin’s studies on hybridization and sterility in plants, such as the primroses in the Primula genus, provided evidence of how natural selection works to produce new species. Climbing plants, with their modified leaves turned into tendrils, further illustrated how environmental pressures could lead to evolutionary adaptations (Charles Darwin, 1859).

Plant research has been foundational in the field of genetics. In the 1800s, Gregor Mendel, considered the father of modern genetics, performed his experiments on Pisum sativa pea plants, observing their flowering and seeding patterns to inform what would come to be known as Mendelian inheritance. He established the Law of Dominance and Uniformity, which describes the behavior of dominant and recessive alleles in genes, the Law of Segregation, where two alleles of the same trait separate during gamete formation, and the Law of Independent Assortment, where genes for separate traits are not inherited together (Abbott and Fairbanks, 2016). While we now know (and Mendel had cautioned) that many traits are non-Mendelian, these laws still inform our understanding of inheritance, including the role it has in human disease.

Around 100 years later, plant biology would continue to impact our understanding of genetics with the work of Barbara McClintock. McClintock, studying maize, observed the unstable inheritance of the mosaic color patterns in the seed. She described “Dissociator” and “Activator” genetic loci, which could change their position in the genome and have wide-ranging effects on other traits, and were regulating other genes (McClintock, 1953). Controversial in its time, this concept is what we know now as transposable elements. While this work was first published in the 1950s, it would not be until 1983 that she won the Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine. Transposable elements have been identified in all organisms and are responsible for a large portion of genetic diversity, including in humans.

Also in more recent times, the discovery of RNA interference (RNAi) in plants revolutionized our understanding of gene regulation. In 1990, plant scientists working with petunias observed a curious phenomenon: when they inserted multiple copies of a gene responsible for the purple color of the flowers, the flowers didn’t become darker, but rather turned white or showed patches. This “gene silencing” effect was later explained by RNAi, a process in which double-stranded RNA molecules trigger the degradation of specific messenger RNAs, preventing gene expression. This discovery, first noted in plants, has since become a powerful tool in molecular biology, aiding in gene function studies and potential therapeutic applications (Sen et al. 2006) .

The contributions of plants extend far beyond fundamental biology—they’ve been instrumental in shaping modern medicine. For millennia, plants have been used for medicinal purposes, and many of today’s life-saving drugs trace their origins back to plants. Take, for instance, willow bark, used by ancient civilizations to treat pain and fevers. This led to the discovery of salicylic acid, which, through modification, became aspirin, one of the most widely used drugs in the world. Similarly, the cinchona tree provided quinine, the first effective treatment for malaria, and the opium poppy has given us morphine and codeine for pain relief. Even more recently, the discovery of paclitaxel from the Pacific yew tree has revolutionized cancer treatment. Perhaps the most profound example of plants in modern drug discovery is the story of artemisinin, derived from sweet wormwood. Used in traditional Chinese medicine for centuries, artemisinin became the basis for a highly effective treatment for malaria. This discovery earned Tu Youyou a Nobel Prize in 2015, highlighting how traditional plant knowledge can guide modern pharmaceutical breakthroughs (Fabricant and Farsnworth, 2001).

In addition to genetics and evolutionary biology, plants have also contributed to physical sciences and the underlying principles of many scientific fields. The core principle of energy transformation, as described by the first law of thermodynamics, is exemplified in photosynthesis, a process by which green plants and other living organisms such as algae and certain bacteria convert light energy into chemical energy, producing oxygen and organic compounds essential for life on Earth.

Physician and physicist Julius Robert Mayer, well-known for formulating the law of conservation of energy, played a key role in understanding photosynthetic mechanisms. He was the first to formally state that plants convert light energy to chemical energy that is later utilized for their growth and development. In 1774, a set of experiments conducted by Joseph Priestley, a chemist, provided evidence that the gas consumed by animals can be replenished by plants and revealed that air contains oxygen. Next, in the late 1770s, Jan Ingenhousz, a chemist, biologist, and physiologist, showed that plants need light to produce oxygen by monitoring bubble formation from submerged plants in the presence and absence of sunlight. Another pioneer in the field of photosynthetic research was Jean Senebier, a pastor, botanist, and naturalist, who demonstrated that green plants absorb CO₂ and release O₂ in the presence of sunlight. The discovery that plants absorb carbon dioxide and release oxygen revealed the critical role plants play in gas exchange and atmospheric balance. It led to a better understanding of the carbon cycle and oxygen cycle, which are foundational concepts in ecology and Earth sciences.

In 1931, Cornelis Van Niel, a microbiologist, was the first to demonstrate the underlying chemistry of the photosynthetic reactions. Understanding the core mechanisms of photosynthesis revealed key biological concepts like enzyme-driven reactions, energy carriers (ATP and NADPH), and metabolic pathways (like the Calvin-Benson cycle). It showed that life processes depend on precise chemical reactions, helping to launch biochemistry as a formal scientific discipline. Understanding photosynthesis also provided insights into the evolution of life on Earth, especially how early photosynthetic organisms (like cyanobacteria) transformed Earth’s atmosphere and enabled the evolution of aerobic life. It explained why plants, algae, and some bacteria share common traits, leading to theories about endosymbiosis (origin of chloroplasts).

The value of plants in advancing biological research cannot be overstated. Their contributions range from cellular and molecular biology to the discovery of life-saving drugs. Whether it’s the foundational work in understanding genetics, the exploration of evolutionary processes, or the development of cutting-edge biotechnological tools, plants have been indispensable to the progress of biological science. As we continue to unravel the mysteries of life, plants will undoubtedly remain at the heart of discovery, offering new insights, new medicines, and new ways to understand the world around us.

 

References:

Abbott S, Fairbanks DJ. Experiments on Plant Hybrids by Gregor Mendel. Genetics. 2016 Oct;204(2):407-422. doi: 10.1534/genetics.116.195198.

Brown R. Observations on the organs and mode of fecundation in Orchideae and Asclepiadeae. Trans Linn Soc 1829-32;16:685-746.

Darwin, Charles. 2011. The Origin of Species. Collins Classics. London, England: William Collins.

Domenico Ribatti. An historical note on the cell theory, Experimental Cell Research, 2018,https://doi.org/10.1016/j.yexcr.2018.01.038.

Fabricant, D.S.; Farnsworth, N.R. The Value of Plants Used in Traditional Medicine for Drug Discovery. Environ. Health Perspect. 2001, 109(Suppl. 1), 69–75. DOI: 10.1289/ehp.01109s169 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1289/ehp.01109s169

Ford, B. J. (2001). The Royal Society and the Microscope. Notes and Records of the Royal Society of London, 55(1), 29–49. http://www.jstor.org/stable/532143

Hooke, Robert, Allestry, James, & Martyn, John. (1665). Micrographia, or, Some physiological descriptions of minute bodies made by magnifying glasses :with observations and inquiries thereupon. Printed by Jo. Martyn and Ja. Allestry, printers to the Royal Society. https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/786331

McClintock, B. Induction of Instability at Selected Loci in Maize. Genetics. 1953 Nov;38(6):579-99. doi: 10.1093/genetics/38.6.579.

O’Connor, C. & Miko, I. (2008) Developing the chromosome theory. Nature Education 1(1):44  https://www.nature.com/scitable/topicpage/developing-the-chromosome-theory-164/

Sen, G.L. and Blau, H.M. (2006), A brief history of RNAi: the silence of the genes. The FASEB Journal, 20: 1293-1299. https://doi.org/10.1096/fj.06-6014rev

 

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About the Authors

Gourav Arora

Gourav is a second year doctoral researcher in the Coupland department at the Max Planck Institute for Plant Breeding Research, and a 2025 Plantae Fellows.  His work focuses on the regulation of flowering time in Arabidopsis, specifically through the FT-FD module. In his free time, he loves capturing the beauty of nature through photography, particularly flowers and plants. He also enjoys watching anime, playing table tennis, and reading Hindi poetry. You can find him on X: @gourav_arora_g.

Elise Krespan

Elise is a PhD Candidate in the Department of Biology at Syracuse University, and a 2025 Plantae Fellows. Her work investigates combined transgenic and mycorrhizal strategies of optimizing poplar growth, cell wall characteristics, and response to altered nutrient conditions. Elise is also interested in interdisciplinarity and the intersections between Biology and Design.

Abira Sahu

Abira is a Postdoctoral Research Associate in Michigan State University Plant Research Laboratory, and a 2024 Plantae Fellow. Her research focuses on the regulation of isoprene emission from plants and its significance in plant physiology and atmospheric chemistry.  You can find her on X: @AbiraSahu.